Factorial validity and measurement invariance of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ).

The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) is the gold standard measure for burnout in athletes. However, previous assessments of factorial validity have: (a) tested overly restrictive measurement models; (b) provided mixed support for factorial validity; and (c) not been applied to assess measurement invariance across gender, sport type, or age. To address these issues, we used ABQ data provided by 914 athletes (Mage = 21.75 years, SD = 8.79) and examined factorial validity using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) techniques. We also examined measurement invariance of the ABQ data across reported gender (female, male), sport type (individual, team), and age (≤18 years, >18 years) groups. The analyses revealed that an ESEM model provided superior fit over the corresponding CFA model. In terms of measurement invariance, support was provided for the equivalence of the ABQ across each group. This means that researchers using the ABQ can collect data across these groups and examine potential differences with confidence that the ABQ is approximately invariant. In all, we provide evidence that the majority of ABQ items are key target construct indicators and the burnout construct (as measured by the ABQ) has the same structure and meaning to different athlete groups.

Perfectionism and performance in sport: Exploring non-linear relationships with track and field athletes.

The relationship between perfectionism - perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns - and athletic performance is contested and inconsistent. The present study explored the possibility that one explanation for this inconsistency is the assumption that the relationship is linear. In two samples, we tested alternative non-linear relationships between perfectionism and real-world competitive athletic performance. Sample one comprised 165 Swedish track and field athletes (57 % competing in female category, 42 % in male category; Mage = 16.93 years) and sample two comprised 157 British track and field athletes (55 % competing in female category, 43 % in male category; Mage = 18.42 years). Testing for linear and non-linear relationships, we found a quadratic effect whereby higher perfectionistic strivings had both positive increasing (i.e., U-shape; sample 1) and positive decreasing (i.e., inverted U-shape; sample 2) relationships with performance. We conclude that there may be circumstances when perfectionistic strivings contribute to better and worse sport performance, and that this relationship can be curvilinear.

Don't look back in anger: A cross-sectional and dyadic examination of the Dark Triad, anger, and aggression in athletes.

OBJECTIVES: The Dark Triad (psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism) has been linked to anti-social behaviour in sport, and while anti-social behaviour often involves aggression and violence, no research to date has examined the relationship between the Dark Triad and anger and aggression in athletes. The current two-sample study sought to address this gap. DESIGN: Multi-sample cross-sectional design. METHOD: Sample 1 included 224 athletes (MAGE = 23.85) and Sample 2 included 98 coach-athlete dyads (196 total; athlete MAGE = 18.15, coaches MAGE = 34.84). In both samples, facets of the Dark Triad were related to anger and aggression. RESULTS: In Sample 1, regression analyses indicated that psychopathy positively predicted both anger and aggression and Machiavellianism positively predicted aggression. In Sample 2, actor-partner interdependence models indicated a combination of dyadic relationships (i.e., both actor [coach and athlete personality predicted their own anger and aggression] and partner effects [coach and athlete personality predicted the other's anger and aggression]). In this regard, actor effects were found between psychopathy and both anger and aggression and narcissism and aggression. Coach to athlete partner effects were found for narcissism and anger and Machiavellianism and aggression. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the findings provide evidence for personal and interpersonal relationships between the Dark Triad and anger and aggression and highlight the potential for the darker side of both athlete and coach personality to influence athlete emotions.

A test of the 2 × 2 Model of Perfectionistic Pressure in youth sport.

Perfectionistic pressure from coaches and parents is likely to contribute to the development of perfectionism in youth athletes. However, if and how perfectionistic pressure from coaches and parents interact to predict the development of perfectionism is unknown. With this in mind, the present study tested a new model - the 2 × 2 Model of Perfectionistic Pressure - that focuses on the different combinations of perfectionistic pressure youth athletes can experience. Four within-person combinations of perfectionistic pressure are identified and compared: Pure coach pressure (high coach pressure/low parental pressure), pure parental pressure (low coach pressure/high parental pressure), mixed pressure (high coach pressure/high parental pressure), and low pressure (low coach pressure/low parental pressure). To test the model, a sample of 210 youth athletes (M age = 14.68 years) completed measures of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, coach pressure to be perfect, and parental pressure to be perfect. Moderated hierarchical regression and simple slopes analyses revealed that mixed pressure was related to the highest levels of both perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. The findings provide initial evidence for the new model and suggests it will be useful in studying the development of perfectionism and other outcomes in sport.

Perfectionism and doping willingness in athletes: The mediating role of moral disengagement.

Although trait perfectionism has been related to doping attitudes in athletes, research investigating variables that could account for relationships between perfectionism and doping outcomes has received scant attention. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether perfectionism was related to doping willingness directly, and indirectly via moral disengagement. We recruited a sample of 204 student athletes (M age = 19.12 years, SD = 1.17, n = 81 females - 39.70%) who completed measures of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, doping moral disengagement, and doping willingness. Multiple regression analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (ß = .13, p < .05) and a nonsignificant relationship between perfectionistic strivings and doping willingness (ß = -.01, p > .05). Moreover, bias-corrected bootstrapped indirect effects revealed that doping moral disengagement mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (ab = .12; 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.21). The findings suggest that the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping extends beyond attitudes - to doping willingness - and the propensity to morally disengage explains why this is the case.

A daily diary study of primary appraisals, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intentions in sport coaches.

Cognitive-motivational-relational theory asserts that stress is a dynamic process, during which daily fluctuations in mediating processes (primary appraisals) can explain a range of ill-being and performance related outcomes. We tested this idea using a daily diary study to examine the relationships between primary appraisals, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intentions in sport coaches. Forty-four sport coaches (61% male; Mage = 34.98 years) completed an online questionnaire twice per day for five days. The findings of within-person analyses indicated that hourly harm appraisals positively predicted momentary emotional exhaustion over the diary period (ß = .30, p < .05). Additionally, emotional exhaustion positively predicted coaches' job turnover intentions (ß = .18, p < .05). The findings offer unique insight into the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of stress and emotion by illustrating how exhaustion and turnover intentions may be intensified as a function of primary appraisals experienced during the working day.

Energetic connectivity of diverse elasmobranch populations - implications for ecological resilience.

Understanding the factors shaping patterns of ecological resilience is critical for mitigating the loss of global biodiversity. Throughout aquatic environments, highly mobile predators are thought to serve as important vectors of energy between ecosystems thereby promoting stability and resilience. However, the role these predators play in connecting food webs and promoting energy flow remains poorly understood in most contexts. Using carbon and nitrogen isotopes, we quantified the use of several prey resource pools (small oceanic forage, large oceanics, coral reef, and seagrass) by 17 species of elasmobranch fishes (n = 351 individuals) in The Bahamas to determine their functional diversity and roles as ecosystem links. We observed remarkable functional diversity across species and identified four major groups responsible for connecting discrete regions of the seascape. Elasmobranchs were responsible for promoting energetic connectivity between neritic, oceanic and deep-sea ecosystems. Our findings illustrate how mobile predators promote ecosystem connectivity, underscoring their functional significance and role in supporting ecological resilience. More broadly, strong predator conservation efforts in developing island nations, such as The Bahamas, are likely to yield ecological benefits that enhance the resilience of marine ecosystems to combat imminent threats such as habitat degradation and climate change.

A longitudinal study of perfectionism and orthorexia in exercisers.

Research suggests that trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation are related to orthorexia - a pathological obsession with correct nutrition. However, no studies have examined these relationships over time or compared the influence of the two aspects of perfectionism on orthorexia. In the present study we sought to address these two issues. Gym members who engaged in high degrees of exercise were recruited via social media platforms. They completed an online questionnaire that included the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-Short Form, Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and the Eating Habits Questionnaire on two occasions: 177 participants (Mean age = 31.6 years) initially completed the questionnaire and 82 completed the questionnaire six weeks later. A series of multiple regression analyses revealed that (i) trait perfectionism predicted an increase in orthorexia symptomatology over time with socially prescribed perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism unique predictors of orthorexia, (ii) perfectionistic self-presentation predicted orthorexia over time with nondisplay of imperfection a unique predictor of orthorexia, and (iii) when considered alongside each other, only trait dimensions of perfectionism were unique predictors of orthorexia. The present study provides further evidence that perfectionism is related to orthorexia. In addition, the study also provides preliminary evidence that more engrained trait aspects of perfectionism are more predictive of orthorexia over time than the self-presentational aspects of perfectionism.

Multi-wave analyses of coping, athlete burnout, and well-being among F. A. Premier League academy players.

Being a player with an F. A. Premier football academy is very prestigious for young players, but it can also be very stressful too. Coping with stress is particularly important given that one of the undesirable consequences linked to chronic stress is athlete burnout, which may also negatively impact psychological well-being. Understanding the most effective ways to cope with stress, therefore, is important for optimizing academy athlete education. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to examine whether coping predicted changes in athlete burnout, and whether athlete burnout predicted changes in well-being across 14 weeks of the competitive season. A sample of 26, under-18 and under-23, male F.A. Premier academy athletes completed weekly assessments of coping (task-, distraction-, and disengagement-oriented), athlete burnout, and psychological well-being on 14 separate occasions. The results of within-person analyses revealed that task-oriented coping predicted decreases in athlete burnout, which in turn predicted decreased well-being. Teaching high-level academy athletes task-oriented coping strategies may be useful in reducing athlete burnout, which may additionally protect athletes' well-being.

Athlete Burnout Symptoms Are Increasing: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis of Average Levels From 1997 to 2019.

With the increasing prevalence of mental health difficulties in sport, athletes may be at greater risk of burnout than ever before. In the present study, we tested this possibility by examining whether average athlete burnout levels have changed over the past 2 decades, from 1997 to 2019. A literature search returned 91 studies (N = 21,012) and 396 effect sizes. Findings from cross-temporal meta-analysis suggested that burnout symptoms have increased over the past 2 decades. Specifically, we found that athletes' mean levels of reduced sense of athletic accomplishment and sport devaluation have increased. As burnout symptoms are now typically higher among athletes than in the past, we can expect more athletes to be prone to the negative effects of burnout. Sport is therefore in urgent need of prevention and intervention strategies to stop and reverse this trend.

Trophic Dynamics and Feeding Ecology of Skipjack Tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) off Eastern and Western Taiwan.

The skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) is a mesopredator fish species with seasonal abundance in waters off Taiwan. Regional ecological and life-history information has been historically lacking for this species. In recent years, stable isotope analysis (SIA) of carbon and nitrogen has been used to assess predator feeding ecology and broader ecosystem trophic dynamics. This study evaluated comparative skipjack feeding ecology in distinct regions off Taiwan, combining traditional stomach content analysis with SIA of individuals off western (n = 43; 2020) and eastern (n = 347; 2012-2014 and n = 167; 2020) Taiwan. The stomach content analysis showed the most important prey to be ponyfish (Photopectoralis bindus) in western Taiwan and epipelagic squids (Myopsina spp.) and carangids (Decapterus macrosoma;) in eastern Taiwan from 2012 to 2014 and epipelagic carangids (Decapterus spp.) and flying fishes (Cheilopogon spp.) in eastern Taiwan in 2020, suggesting that the skipjack tuna is a generalist predator across regions. In contrast, time-integrated diet estimates from Bayesian mixing models indicated the importance of cephalopods and crustaceans as prey, potentially demonstrating more mesopelagic feeding in less productive waters during skipjack migrations outside the study regions. Skipjack off western Taiwan had a slightly higher estimated trophic position than in the waters off eastern Taiwan, potentially driven by the varying nutrient-driven pelagic food web structures. Skipjack SI values increased with body size off eastern Taiwan but not in western waters, suggesting that opportunistic predation can still result in different predator-prey size dynamics between regions.

Evidence that Pacific tuna mercury levels are driven by marine methylmercury production and anthropogenic inputs.

Pacific Ocean tuna is among the most-consumed seafood products but contains relatively high levels of the neurotoxin methylmercury. Limited observations suggest tuna mercury levels vary in space and time, yet the drivers are not well understood. Here, we map mercury concentrations in skipjack tuna across the Pacific Ocean and build generalized additive models to quantify the anthropogenic, ecological, and biogeochemical drivers. Skipjack mercury levels display a fivefold spatial gradient, with maximum concentrations in the northwest near Asia, intermediate values in the east, and the lowest levels in the west, southwest, and central Pacific. Large spatial differences can be explained by the depth of the seawater methylmercury peak near low-oxygen zones, leading to enhanced tuna mercury concentrations in regions where oxygen depletion is shallow. Despite this natural biogeochemical control, the mercury hotspot in tuna caught near Asia is explained by elevated atmospheric mercury concentrations and/or mercury river inputs to the coastal shelf. While we cannot ignore the legacy mercury contribution from other regions to the Pacific Ocean (e.g., North America and Europe), our results suggest that recent anthropogenic mercury release, which is currently largest in Asia, contributes directly to present-day human mercury exposure.

Do Athlete and Coach Performance Perfectionism Predict Athlete Burnout?

Research has illustrated that athlete perfectionism predicts athlete burnout. The present study sought to build on existing research in two ways. First, we provide the first test of the relationship between performance perfectionism and athlete burnout. That is, whether the degree to which athlete's expect their own or others' sport performances to be perfect, predicts burnout. Second, we broaden the examination of the perfectionism-burnout relationship to include coaches by testing the incremental predictive ability of perceptions of coach other-oriented performance perfectionism (the degree to which coaches were perceived to expect perfect performances from others). A sample of 190 competitive adult athletes (M age = 20.54) completed measures of their own performance perfectionism (self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented performance perfectionism), perceived coach other-oriented performance perfectionism, and burnout symptoms. Regression analyses indicated that both athlete self-oriented and socially prescribed performance perfectionism positively predicted athlete burnout. In addition, after controlling for all dimensions of athlete performance perfectionism, perceived coach other-oriented performance perfectionism positively predicted athlete burnout. The findings suggest that, in addition to their own perfectionism, when athletes perceive their coaches to be more perfectionistic towards others, they are more likely to experience burnout.

Perfectionistic self-presentation and orthorexia in exercisers.

PURPOSE: The present study aimed to provide the first examination of whether perfectionistic self-presentation-an interpersonal expression of perfectionism-is related to orthorexia. METHODS: We recruited a sample of 150 exercisers (Mean age = 27.7 years). Participants completed the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale and the ORTO-15 on a single occasion. RESULTS: Two dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation-perfectionistic self-promotion and nondisplay of imperfection-showed significant positive correlations with orthorexia. In addition, in multiple regression analyses controlling for the overlap between dimensions, perfectionistic self-promotion emerged as the strongest and only significant predictor of orthorexia. CONCLUSION: Perfectionistic self-presentation is positively associated with orthorexia in exercisers. Perfectionistic self-promotion-a need to portray an image of perfection to others-is primarily responsible for this relationship. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Cross-sectional study, Level V.

Stable isotope turnover rates and fractionation in captive California yellowtail (Seriola dorsalis): insights for application to field studies.

Stable isotope analysis (SIA) measurements from long-term captivity studies provide required parameters for interpretation of consumer SIA data. We raised young-of-the-year (14-19 cm) California yellowtail (Seriola dorsalis) on a low δ15N and δ13C diet (pellet aquaculture feed) for 525 days, then switched to a high δ15N and δ13C diet (mackerel and squid) for 753 days. Yellowtail muscle was sequentially sampled from each individual after the diet switch (0 to 753 days) and analyzed for δ15N and δ13C, allowing for calculation of diet-tissue discrimination factors (DTDFs) from two isotopically different diets (low δ15N and δ13C: pellets; high δ15N and δ13C: fish/squid) and turnover rates of 15N and 13C. DTDFs were diet dependent: Δ15N = 5.1‰, Δ13C = 3.6‰ for pellets and Δ15N = 2.6‰, Δ13C = 1.3‰ for fish/squid. Half-life estimates from 15N and 13C turnover rates for pooled yellowtail were 181 days and 341 days, respectively, but varied considerably by individual (15N: 99-239 d; 13C: 158-899 d). Quantifying DTDFs supports isotopic approaches to field data that assume isotopic steady-state conditions (e.g., mixing models for diet reconstruction). Characterizing and quantifying turnover rates allow for estimates of diet/habitat shifts and "isotopic clock" approaches, and observed inter-individual variability suggests the need for large datasets in field studies. We provide diet-dependent DTDFs and growth effects on turnover rates, and associated error around these parameters, for application to field-collected SIA data from other large teleosts.

The winner takes it all: The mediating role of competitive orientations in the Dark Triad and sport task performance relationship.

The Dark Triad traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) are prevalent in athletes. However, currently, we do not know whether the Dark Triad confers any competitive advantages in sport. To address this issue, the present study had two aims. First, to examine whether the Dark Triad predicted task performance in a basketball free throw task. Second, to examine whether competitive orientations explained (i.e. mediated) this relationship. A sample of 189 athletes (mean age = 19.11 years) completed measures of the Dark Triad, competitive orientations, and task performance (basketball free throw task). Regression analyses indicated that the Dark Triad predicted better task performance. In addition, mediation analyses indicated that the Dark Triad-performance relationship was explained by both hypercompetitive and self-developmental competitive orientations. The present study provides the first evidence that the Dark Triad may lead to better task performance in sport, and that this effect may be driven by athletes' competitive orientations.

A three-sample study of perfectionism and field test performance in athletes.

Field tests are commonly used by sport scientists for performance monitoring and evaluation. While perfectionism predicts performance in a range of contexts, it is currently unclear whether perfectionism predicts performance in such tests. To address this lack of understanding, the present study examined the relationships between perfectionism and fitness-based field test performance across three athlete samples. After completing a measure of perfectionism (striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection), sample one (n = 129 student athletes) participated in a series of countermovement jumps and 20-metre sprint trials, sample two (n = 136 student athletes) participated in an agility task, and sample three (n = 116 junior athletes) participated in the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (level one). Striving for perfection predicted better sprint and Yo-Yo test performance. Negative reactions to imperfection predicted worse sprint performance. Mini meta-analyses of the combined data (N = 381) showed that striving for perfection was positively related to performance (r+ = .24), but negative reactions to imperfection was unrelated to performance (r+ = -.05). The present findings indicate that striving for perfection may predict better fitness-based field test performance, while negative reactions to imperfection appears to be ambiguous.

Mental health and psychological well-being among professional rugby league players from the UK.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to measure depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and psychological well-being among a sample of Super League players, the highest tier of professional rugby league in the northern hemisphere. METHODS: Between November 2018 and July 2019, a sample of 233 Super League players completed questionnaires that assessed depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and psychological well-being. RESULTS: Players exhibited normal (85.8%), mild (11.6%) or moderate/severe (2.6%) depressive symptoms. Additionally, players reported normal (67.4%), mild (18.9%) or moderate/severe (13.7%) anxiety symptoms. The mean psychological well-being score across the sample was 25.07 (SD=4.34). 35.2% of players scored below average for this construct. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of mild depressive symptoms, moderate/severe depressive symptoms and mild anxiety symptoms among Super League players preliminary appear higher than in the general population from the UK. Much more research is needed to understand mental health among elite athletes.

Development of perfectionism in junior athletes: Examination of actual and perceived parental perfectionism.

Initial research suggests that parental perfectionism is central to the development of athlete perfectionism. However, it is unclear whether perceived or actual parental perfectionism is most important. The present study aimed to address this issue in two ways. First, we re-examined the predictive ability of actual versus perceived parental perfectionism on athlete perfectionism. Second, for the first time, we tested whether perceived parental perfectionism mediated the relationship between actual parental perfectionism and athlete perfectionism. A sample of 150 junior athletes and their parents completed measures of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns). Junior athletes completed two measures, one of their own perfectionism and one of perceptions of their parents' perfectionism. Parents completed one measure of their own perfectionism. Regression analyses showed that perceived parental perfectionism predicted athlete perfectionism over and above actual parental perfectionism. Mediation analyses provided support for our proposed model. Overall, the findings suggest that both actual and perceived parental perfectionism are important in the development of perfectionism in junior athletes.

Cheater, cheater, pumpkin eater: the Dark Triad, attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes.

We examined the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy), attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes. One-hundred and sixty-four athletes completed a completed a matrix solving task within a specific time limit. Participants were told they would receive a financial reward for the total number matrices they could solve, but only 13 of the 20 matrices were solvable. This provided the incentive and opportunity for the athletes to cheat. Following this, athletes completed two questionnaires, which assessed the Dark Triad and their attitudes towards doping. All three Dark Triad personality traits correlated positively with attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour. Regression analyses revealed that psychopathy and narcissism positively predicted attitudes towards doping, and narcissism emerged as a positive predictor of cheating behaviour. Attitudes towards doping correlated positively with cheating behaviour. The Dark Triad appears to be important in relation to both attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour among athletes. In addition, our findings illustrate that favourable attitudes towards doping are linked with actual cheating among athletes. National Anti-Doping Organizations, sports federations, and coaches could assess athletes' Dark Triad scores and attitudes towards doping in order to identify who may be more likely to cheat.